A 2004 Summary of Statistics, from MADD

In 2003, an estimated 17,013 people died in alcohol-related traffic crashes in the USA — an average of one every 31 minutes. These deaths constitute 40 percent of the 42,643 total traffic fatalities. ^[i]

In 2001, more than half a million people were injured in crashes where police reported that alcohol was present — an average of one person injured almost every minute. ^[ii]^{,
[iii]}

For fatal crashes occurring from midnight to 3:00 AM, 77 percent involved alcohol in 2003. The next most dangerous time period for alcohol-related crash deaths were 9 PM to midnight (64 percent of fatal crashes involved alcohol), followed by 3 AM to 6 AM (60 percent of fatal crashes involved alcohol). ^[iv]

About three in every ten Americans will be involved in an alcohol-related crash at some time in their lives. ^[v]

Impairment is not determined by the type of drink, but rather by the amount of alcohol ingested over a specific period of time. ^[vi]

A standard drink is defined as 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1.5 ounces of 72-proof distilled spirits, all of which contain the same amount of alcohol – about .54 ounces. ^[vii]

The impact of alcohol involvement increases with injury severity. Alcohol-involved crashes accounted for 10 percent of property damage only crash costs, 21 percent of nonfatal injury crash costs; and 46 percent of fatal injury crash costs. ^[viii]

Drunk driving is the nation’s most frequently committed violent crime, killing someone every 31 minutes. ^[ix]

Many studies have found that beer is the preferred beverage of drinking drivers.[x]

Beer is the drink most commonly consumed by people stopped for alcohol-impaired driving or involved in alcohol-related crashes.[xi]

Beer is the drink of choice in most cases of heavy drinking, binge drinking, drunk driving and underage drinking. [xii]

Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for people from 2 to 33 years old.[xiv]

The rate of alcohol involvement in fatal crashes is more than 3 times as high at night as during the day (61 percent vs. 18 percent). For all crashes, the alcohol involvement rate is 5 times as high at night (16 percent vs. 3 percent).[xv]

In 2003, 30 percent of all fatal crashes during the week were alcohol-related, compared to 53 percent on weekends. For all crashes, the alcohol involvement rate was 5 percent during the week and 12 percent during the weekend.[xvi]

Those drivers 21 to 24 years old were most likely to be intoxicated (BAC of 0.08 g/dl or greater) in fatal crashes in 2003. Thirty-two percent of drivers 21 to 24 years old involved in fatal crashes were intoxicated, followed by ages 25 to 34 (27 percent) and 35 to 44 (24 percent).[xvii]

Those drivers over the age of 70 were least likely to be intoxicated (BAC of 0.08 g/dl or greater) in fatal crashes in 2003 – only five percent were intoxicated.[xviii]

The highest prevalence of both binge and heavy drinking in 2002 was for young adults aged 18 to 25, with the peak rate occurring at age 21. The rate of binge drinking was 40.9 percent for young adults and 50.2 percent at age 21.[xix]

The speed of alcohol absorption affects the rate at which one becomes drunk. Unlike foods, alcohol does not have to be slowly digested. As a person drinks faster than the alcohol can be eliminated, the drug accumulates in the body, resulting in higher and higher levels of alcohol in the blood.[xx]

The average person metabolizes alcohol at the rate of about one drink per hour. Only time will sober a person up. Drinking strong coffee, exercising or taking a cold shower will not help.[xxi]

There is evidence that heavier drinkers prefer to drink at bars and other person's homes, and at multiple locations requiring longer driver distances. Young drivers have been found to prefer drinking at private parties, while older, more educated drivers prefer bars and taverns. [xxii]

Alcohol-related fatalities are caused primarily by the consumption of beer (80 percent) followed by liquor/wine (20 percent).[xxiii]

About 45 percent of those 21 years of age and older report that they did not consume any alcohol in the past month. Another 23 percent report binge drinking during that period.[xxiv]

Approximately 18 million Americans—8.5 percent of the population—meet the diagnostic criteria for alcohol abuse or alcoholism.[xxv]

Binge drinkers (those who have five or more drinks on any occasion) are only 20 percent of the US population, but drink 83 percent of the alcohol. Frequent bingers (those who have five or more drinks at a time five or more times in the past month) are only six percent of the US population, but drink 50 percent of the alcohol.[xxvi]

Since MADD's founding in 1980, alcohol-related traffic fatalities have decreased 44 percent (from 30,429 to 17,013)[xxvii] and MADD has helped save almost 300,000 lives.[xxviii]

Recent advertising expenditures in the United States for beer, wine, and liquor combined ($1.9 billion) totaled over 10 times the amount spent on milk ads ($137.7 million). ^[xxix]^{,
[xxx]}

Studies show that alcohol advertising may predispose young people to drinking. As a result, efforts to prevent drinking and driving problems among young people should give attention to countering the potential effects of alcohol advertising.^[xxxi]^{,
[xxxii],
[xxxiii]}

Young people view approximately 20,000 commercials each year, of which nearly 2,000 are for beer and wine.[xxxiv]

Underage youth ages 12 to 20 were 128 times more likely to see an alcohol product ad on television than an alcohol company-sponsored responsibility ad in 2002. They were 400 times more likely to see a product ad than an ad discouraging underage drinking and 188 times more likely to see an alcohol product ad than one against drinking and driving.[xxxv]

Forty-nine percent of children live in homes with no set rules about TV watching.[xxxvi]

The availability of alcohol within a community can influence drinking rates and related problems.[xxxvii]

Alcohol use was depicted, typically in a positive light, in more than 70 percent of a sample of episodes in prime-time television programming in 1999.[xxxviii]

Alcohol use was depicted, typically in a positive light, in more than 90 percent of the 200 most popular movie rentals for 1996-1997.[xxxix]

About 17 percent of the 1,000 most popular songs in 1996-1997 across five genres of music popular with youth contained alcohol references, including almost one-half of the rap music.[xl]

Approximately 1.5 million drivers were arrested in 2002 for driving under the influence of alcohol or narcotics. This is an arrest rate of 1 for every 130 licensed drivers in the United States (2003 data not yet available).[xli]

One arrest is made for driving under the influence for every 772 episodes of driving within two hours of drinking and for every 88 episodes of driving over the illegal limit in the U.S.[xlii]

Among the 5.3 million convicted offenders under the jurisdiction of corrections agencies in 1996, nearly 2 million, or about 36 percent, were estimated to have been drinking at the time of the offense.[xliii]

Forty percent of people convicted of violent victimizations (sexual assault, robbery, homicide, aggravated assault, and simple assault) and 25 percent of victims had been drinking at the time of the event.[xliv]

Only 17 percent of impaired drivers who are injured in crashes are charged and convicted. Eleven percent are charged and not convicted and 72 percent are never charged.[xlv]

Incidence of intoxication (BAC of 0.08 g/dl or greater) for drivers in fatal crashes in 2003 was highest for motorcycle operators (29 percent) and lowest for drivers of large trucks (1 percent). The incidence of intoxication for drivers of light trucks and passenger car drivers was the same (22 percent).[xlvi]

Research continues to show that young drivers 15 to 20 years old are more often involved in alcohol-related crashes than any other comparable age group. Alcohol-crash involvement rates, share of the alcohol-crash problem and alcohol-crash risk all reach their peaks with young drivers, with the peaks for fatal crashes occurring at age 21.[xlvii]

Among those that were primarily legislative in nature, laws establishing administrative license revocation (ALR) have been found to reduce alcohol-related crashes by up to 40 percent. This adds support for prior research showing the effectiveness of driver license sanctions in general.[xlviii]

Of the general driving age public, 97 percent see drinking and driving as a threat to their personal safety, and 66 percent feel it is extremely important to do something to reduce the problem in terms of where tax dollars should be spent.[xlix]

The driver, pedestrian, or both were intoxicated in 46 percent of all fatal pedestrian crashes in 2003. In these crashes, the intoxication rate for pedestrians was nearly triple the rate for drivers — 34 percent and 13 percent, respectively. Both the pedestrian and the driver were intoxicated in 6 percent of the crashes that resulted in a pedestrian fatality.[l]

The crash risk associated with driving after drinking across all blood alcohol content levels is higher for underage drinkers than for adults.[li]

In 2003, safety belts were used by only 25 percent of the fatally injured intoxicated drivers (BAC of 0.08 g/dl or greater), compared to 40 percent of fatally injured drinking drivers (BAC between 0.01 g/dl and 0.07 g/dl) and 56 percent of fatally injured sober drivers.[lii]

From 1975 through 2003, it is estimated that safety belts saved 179,756 lives, including 14,903 lives saved in 2003. If all passenger vehicle occupants over age 4 wore safety belts, 20,984 lives (that is, an additional 6,081) could have been saved in 2003.[liii]

It is estimated that 446 children under age 5 were saved as a result of child restraint use in 2003. An estimated 7,020 lives were saved by child restraints from 1975-2003.[liv]

Over half (56 percent) of the passenger vehicle occupants killed in traffic crashes in 2003 were unrestrained.[lv]

In 2003, 65 percent of young drivers (15 to 20 years old) of passenger vehicles involved in fatal crashes who had been drinking were unrestrained. Of the young drivers who had been drinking and were killed, 74 percent were unrestrained.[lvi]

During 2003, 8,089 passenger vehicle occupants under 15 years old were involved in fatal crashes. For those children, where restraint use was known, 30 percent were unrestrained; among those who were fatally injured, 53 percent were unrestrained.[lvii]

In 2003, 36 percent of passenger car occupants and 40 percent of light truck occupants involved in fatal crashes were unrestrained.[lviii]

In 2004, the average safety belt usage was 11 percentage points higher in states with primary laws than in states without (84 percent to 73 percent).[lix]

In 2003, 25 percent of 15- to 20-year-old drivers killed in motor vehicle crashes had been drinking. Nineteen percent were intoxicated.[lx]

In 2003, 28 percent of the young male drivers involved in fatal crashes had been drinking at the time of the crash, compared with 13 percent of the young female drivers involved in fatal crashes.[lxi]

Fifty-four percent of teenage motor vehicle deaths in 2000 occurred on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday.[lxii]

Findings from four studies have quantified the crash risk associated with teenage drivers transporting teenage passengers. Collectively, these studies indicate that the presence of passengers strongly increases crash risk for teenage drivers; the more passengers the greater the risk.[lxiii]

About 1 in 7 Americans aged 12 or older in 2002 (33.5 million persons) drove under the influence of alcohol at least once in the 12 months prior to the interview. Among young adults aged 18 to 25 years, 26.6 percent drove under the influence of alcohol.[lxiv]

Underage drinkers are responsible for between 10 and 20 percent of all alcohol consumed in the United States.[lxvii]

About 10.7 million people aged 12 to 20 years reported current use of alcohol in 2002 – (28.8 percent of this age group). Of these, nearly 7.2 million or 19.3 percent were binge drinkers and 2.3 million or 6.2 percent were heavy drinkers.[lxviii]

Approximately one fifth (22.9 percent) of persons aged 12 or older participated in binge drinking at least once in the 30 days prior to an alcohol use survey.[lxix]

Binge drinking has been defined as at least five drinks in a row for men and four drinks in a row for women.[lxx]

Teenagers are not well informed about alcohol's effects. Nearly one-third of teens mistakenly believe that a 12-ounce can of beer contains less alcohol than a standard shot of distilled sprits. [lxxi]

It is estimated that at least 2/3 of alcohol outlets sell to underage purchasers without asking for identification.[lxxii]

In fiscal 2000, $71.1 million was targeted at preventing underage alcohol use by the U.S. Departments of Health and Human Services, Justice, and Transportation. In contrast, the fiscal 2000 federal budget authority for drug abuse prevention was 25 times higher – $1.8 billion.[lxxiii]

Over 94 percent of twelfth graders, 83 percent of tenth graders, and 63 percent of eighth graders report that alcohol is “very easy” or “fairly easy” to get.[lxxiv]

The average age of first alcohol use has generally decreased since 1965, indicating that youth are starting to drink at younger ages.[lxxv]

By ages 19 and 20, 70 percent of all drinkers engage in heavy drinking, suggesting that the majority of young people are at great risk of making poor decisions that have significant long-term consequences.[lxxvi]

About 91 percent of all drinks consumed by teenagers are consumed by those who drink heavily.[lxxvii]

Alcohol has been tried by 46 percent of eighth graders, 66 percent of tenth graders, 77 percent of twelfth graders, and 86 percent of college students; active use is also widespread.

Twelve percent of eighth graders, 22 percent of tenth graders, 28 percent of twelfth graders and 39 percent of college student drank heavily (over five drinks in one sitting) in the two weeks preceding a national alcohol survey.

Forty-six percent of eighth graders have tried alcohol and 20 percent of eighth graders have been drunk at least once. [lxxx]

Only 31 percent of parents of 15- to 16-year-olds believe their child had a drink in the past year, compared to the 60 percent of teens in that age group who reported drinking.[lxxxi]

Thirty-three percent of 6th to 12th graders said their parents never, seldom, or sometimes set clear rules for them and almost half said their parents never, seldom, or sometimes discipline them when they break the rules.[lxxxii]

Over 6000 people died in 2002 from underage-drinking-related causes (alcohol-related traffic fatalities, homicides, suicides, and other unintentional injuries). Over 2200 of these were alcohol-related traffic fatalities.[lxxxiii]

High school binge drinking is a major predictor of binge drinking in college.[lxxxiv]

The total cost attributable to the consequences of underage drinking was more than $53 billion per year in 1998 dollars.[lxxxv]

More than 40 percent of individuals who start drinking before the age of 13 will develop alcohol abuse or alcohol dependence at some point in their lives.[lxxxvi]

An early age of drinking onset is associated with alcohol-related violence not only among persons under age 21 but among adults as well.[lxxxvii]

People who begin drinking before the age of 15 are four times more likely to develop alcohol dependence than those who wait until age 21. Each additional year of delayed drinking onset reduces the probability of alcohol dependence by 14 percent.[lxxxviii]

High school students who use alcohol or other substances are five times more likely than other students to drop out of school or to believe that earning good grades is not important.[lxxxix]

People who begin drinking before age 14 are three times more likely than those who began drinking after age 21 to report ever driving after drinking too much and four times more likely to report doing so in the past year.[xc]

People who begin drinking before age 14 are seven times more likely than those who began drinking after age 21 to report being in a motor vehicle crash because of their drinking.[xci]

Those who have their first drink prior to age 19 are significantly more likely to become alcohol dependent, to drive after drinking, and to sustain injuries that required medical attention than those who did not drink before age 19. Those who first drank at younger ages believe they could consume more drinks and still drive safely and legally.[xcii]

Parents’ drinking behavior and favorable attitudes about drinking have been positively associated with adolescents’ initiating and continuing drinking.[xciii]

In 2001, 41 percent of frequent binge drinkers had unplanned sex and 21 percent had unsafe sex as a result of their drinking in the past year.[xciv]

In 1996, underage drinking led to an estimated 3,500 deaths, 2 million nonfatal injuries, 1,200 cases of fetal alcohol syndrome, and 57,000 cases of treatment for alcohol dependence.[xcv]

Youth who start drinking before age 15, compared to those who wait until age 21, were 12 times more likely to be unintentionally injured while under the influence of alcohol, 7 times more likely to be in a motor vehicle crash after drinking, and 10 times more likely to have been in a physical fight after drinking.[xcvi]

Among young people, 41 percent of frequent heavy drinkers reported riding with an intoxicated driver, compared with only 14 percent of those who never drank.[xcvii]

In 1999, nearly 40 percent of people under age 21 who were victims of drownings, burns, and falls tested positive for alcohol. Youth constituted 7 percent of nonfatal and 30 percent of fatal alcohol-related drownings and burns.[xcviii]

Alcohol has been reported to be involved in 36 percent of homicides, 12 percent of male suicides, and 8 percent of female suicides involving people under 21 – a total of about 1,500 homicides and 300 suicides in 2000.[xcix]

Among drinkers, those who had their first drink before the age of 13 were twice as likely to have unplanned sex and more than twice as likely to have unprotected sex.[c]

In 2001, there were approximately 119,500 alcohol-related visits to the emergency department involving people under the age of 21.[ci]

In 2002, approximately 1.6 million children between the ages of 12 and 17 ran away from home and slept on the street. Of those who ran away, half reported using alcohol in the past year; only one-third of those who did not run away reported using alcohol in the past year.[cii]

A College Alcohol Survey of four colleges indicated that binge-drinking levels are associated with ease of access to alcohol, price, special promotions, and outlet density in college communities.[ciii]

In 2001, approximately 44 percent of college students reported binge drinking, according to a college survey. This percentage is almost identical to rates in three previous surveys. [civ]

Students who attended schools with high rates of heavy drinking experienced a greater number of secondhand effects, including disruption of sleep or studies, property damage, and verbal, physical, or sexual violence.[cv]

Each year, drinking by college students, ages 18-24, contributes to an estimated 1,400 student deaths, 500,000 injuries, more than 600,000 assaults, more than 70,000 sexual assaults, 400,000 engaging in unprotected sex, more than 150,000 developing an alcohol-related health problem. In 2000, 2.1 million college students drove a car while under the influence of alcohol.[cvi]

As a result of their drinking, about 25 percent of college students report academic consequences, 11 percent report they have damaged property under the influence of alcohol, and 5 percent are involved with police or campus security.[cvii]

Drinking reduces the number of hours spent studying per day among college students. Each additional drink per occasion is associated with fifteen minutes less studying per day.[cviii]

Binge drinking is associated with lower grades among college students. Approximately five drinks per occasion are associated with a GPA lower by half a grade.[cix]

Each additional drink consumed by college students per occasion increased the probability of missing a class by 8 percent and getting behind in school by 5 percent.[cx]

Six percent of college have been diagnosed as alcohol dependent and nearly one-third of students who be given an alcohol abuse diagnosis under psychiatric criteria. Forty-four percent of students reported at least one symptom of either abuse or dependence.[cxi]

Access to an unlimited amount of alcohol for a flat fee increases the number of drinks in a sitting by 1.6 drinks on average.[cxii]

One out of every four college students who drink report having forgotten where they were or what they did while drinking during the school year. The incidence of blackout was doubled (54 percent) among frequent binge drinkers.[cxiii]

In 2001, 23 percent of underage college students obtained alcohol from a parent or relative, up from 17 percent in 1993.[cxiv]

Over two out of every five of all college students are binge drinkers. [cxv]^,[cxvi]

Four in every five college students drink and about half of these engage in heavy drinking.[cxvii]

Self-reported heavy drinking by college students has remained at approximately 44 percent for the past decade.[cxviii]

Nearly half (48 percent) of all of the alcohol consumed by students attending 4-year colleges is consumed by underage students.[cxix]

All states and the District of Columbia have 21-year-old minimum drinking age laws. NHTSA estimates that these laws have reduced traffic fatalities involving drivers 18 to 20 years old by 13 percent and have saved an estimated 21,887 lives since 1975 (through 2002). In 2002, an estimated 917 lives were saved by minimum drinking age laws.[cxx]

In 2003, 21 percent of the children under 15 years old who were killed in motor vehicle crashes were killed in alcohol-related crashes.[cxxi]

Of the children 0-14 years old who were killed in alcohol-related crashes during 2003, 47 percent (209) were passengers in vehicles with drivers who had been drinking.[cxxii]

Between 1985 and 1996, there were 5,555 child passengerdeaths involving a drinking driver. Of these deaths, 3,556 or 64 percent occurred while the child was riding with a drinking driver.[cxxiii]

It has become clear over recent years that alcohol impacts both behavior and brain function differently in adolescents and adults. Adolescents are more vulnerable than adults to the effects of alcohol on learning and memory.[cxxiv]

The brain does not finish developing until a person is around 20 years old, and one of the last regions to mature is intimately involved with the ability to plan and make complex judgments.[cxxv]^{,[cxxvi],[cxxvii]}

Alcohol may encourage aggression by disrupting normal brain mechanisms that normally restrain impulsive behavior such as aggression.[cxxviii]

Alcohol affects all parts of the brain, which also affects the heart rate, coordination, speech, and destruction of brain cells.[cxxix]

Heavy drinking over many years may result in serious mental disorders or permanent, irreversible damage to the brain or peripheral nervous system.[cxxx]

Alcohol dilutes itself in the water volume of the body in order to travel through the system. Those vital organs, like the brain, that contain a lot of water and need an ample blood supply are particularly vulnerable to the effects of alcohol.[cxxxi]

In 2003, 34 percent of all traffic fatalities occurred in crashes in which at least one driver or nonoccupant had a BAC of 0.08 g/dl or greater.[cxxxii]

Fatally injured drivers with BAC levels of 0.08 g/dl or greater were 9 times as likely to have a prior conviction for driving while intoxicated compared to fatally injured sober drivers.[cxxxiii]

Nationwide in 2003, a total of 17,616 fatally injured drivers had known BAC test results out of a total of 26,640, or 66 percent. For surviving drivers, BAC test results were known on 7,705 out of 31,516 drivers, or 24 percent. Overall in 2003, FARS received BAC test results on a total of 25,321 drivers out of 58,156 involved in fatal crashes, or 44 percent.[cxxxiv]

In 2003, of the 17,013 total alcohol-related fatalities, 14,630 had BACs of 0.08 or over. BACs of 0.01 to 0.079 accounted for 2,383 fatalities.[cxxxv]

At BACs as low as 0.02 percent, alcohol affects driving ability and crash likelihood. The probability of a crash begins to increase significantly at 0.05 percent BAC and climbs rapidly after about 0.08 percent.[cxxxvi]

For drivers age 35 and older with BACs at or above 0.15 percent on weekend nights, the likelihood of being killed in a single-vehicle crash is more than 380 times higher than it is for non-drinking drivers.[cxxxvii]

Over four out of five (83 percent) persons of driving age have heard of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels, but only 27 percent can correctly identify the illegal BAC limit for their state.[cxxxviii]

There is considerable evidence that laws that lower the illegal BAC limit from .10 to .08 can reduce alcohol-related fatalities by an average of seven percent.[cxxxix]

The risk of a driver being killed in a crash at .08 BAC is at least 11 times that of drivers without alcohol in their system. At .10 BAC the risk is at least 29 times higher.[cxl]

Virtually all drivers, even experienced drinkers, are significantly impaired at .08 BAC. The results of nearly 300 studies reviewed have shown that, at .08 BAC, virtually all drivers are impaired, which includes critical driving tasks such as divided attention, complex relation time, steering, lane changing, and judgment.[cxli]

The latest research shows that .08 laws not only reduce the incidence of impaired driving at lower BACs, they also reduce the incidence of impaired driving at higher BAC levels (i.e., 0.15% BAC or higher).[cxlii]

Alcohol-related crashes in the United States cost the public an estimated $114.3 billion in 2000, including $51.1 billion in monetary costs and an estimated $63.2 billion in quality of life losses. People other than the drinking driver paid $71.6 billion of the alcohol-related crash bill, which is 63 percent of the total cost of these crashes.[cxliii]

In 2000, the average alcohol-related fatality in the United States cost $3.5 million. The estimated cost per injured survivor was $99,000.[cxliv]

In 2000, alcohol-related crashes accounted for an estimated 18 percent of the $103 billion in U.S. auto insurance payments. Reducing alcohol-related crashes by 10 percent would save $1.8 billion in claims payments and loss adjustment expenses.[cxlv]

The societal costs of alcohol-related crashes in the United States averaged $1.00 per drink consumed. People other than the drinking driver paid $0.60 per drink.[cxlvi]

Studies have consistently found that the societal savings from checkpoints significantly outweigh the initial investment. One study found that there was an average cost savings of $50,000 per checkpoint, including over $3,000 in medical costs.[cxlvii] Another found a $6 benefit for every $1 invested.[cxlviii]

Costs for people involved in crashes who were not wearing safety belts were 55 percent higher than those who were.[cli] Up to 85 percent of these costs are borne by society, not the individual involved in the crash.[clii] This is why the financial benefits of upgrading to a primary belt law are 16 times greater than the costs.[cliii]

Financially, .08 BAC laws are estimated to save 14 times what they cost to implement.[cliv]

Financially, zero tolerance laws are estimated to save 22 times what they cost to implement.[clv]

Mandatory server training saves about $200 per driver in medical, non-medical and quality of life costs, but costs only $59 per driver – a savings of more than three to one.

The annual employer cost of motor vehicle crashes in which at least one driver was impaired by alcohol exceeds $9 billion.[clvii]

About one-third of all drivers arrested or convicted of driving while intoxicated or driving under the influence of alcohol are repeat offenders.[clviii]

The risk of a driver who has one or more DWI convictions becoming involved in a fatal crash is about 1.4 times the risk of a driver with no DWI conviction.[clix]

Male drivers involved in fatal crashes were twice as likely to have been intoxicated (24 percent) – that is, .08 BAC or greater – than female drivers (12 percent).[clx]

Men are more likely than women to be driving at the time of a fatal crash.[clxi]

Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for Hispanics ages 1-44, and the third leading cause of death for all ages surpassed only by heart disease and cancer.[clxii]

The Hispanic population has increased by 57.9 percent in just ten years (1990-2000), much faster than the U. S. population as a whole. This rapid population growth means that Hispanics will constitute an increasing proportion of crash injuries and fatalities.[clxiii]

At highest risk are Hispanic children ages 5-12, who are 72 percent more likely to die in a motor vehicle crash than non-Hispanic children.[clxiv]

Data from 1990-1994 indicate the proportion of fatalities in alcohol-related crashes is approximately the same for Caucasian Americans and African Americans (44.2 percent and 45.2 percent). Hispanic groups range above (Mexican Americans: 54.6 percent) and below (Cuban Americans: 36.6 percent) this level in the proportion of alcohol-related fatalities. Native Americans have a substantially higher alcohol-related fatality rate of 68.1 percent.[clxv]

African Americans generally have the same rate of alcohol involvement for drivers and passengers as Caucasian Americans but have a slightly higher rate for pedestrians and cyclists.[clxvii]

In age groups above 40, African American drivers and pedestrians tend to have higher percentages of alcohol-related fatalities than Caucasian Americans.[clxviii]

Fatally injured African Americans are less likely to be belted at the time of the crash than are Caucasian Americans.[clxix]

Native Americans have the highest percentage of alcohol-involved driver, passenger, and pedestrian fatalities of any ethnic group. Three out of four driver and eight out of ten pedestrian fatalities occur in alcohol-related crashes.[clxx]

Fatally injured Native American drivers and passengers have the lowest safety belt usage rates of any ethnic group.[clxxi]

Next to Native Americans, Mexican Americans have the highest alcohol-related fatality rates among all four types of road users: drivers, passengers, pedestrians, and cyclists. This is true of both men and women.[clxxii]

In a nationwide survey, Caucasians were more likely than any other race/ethnicity group to report current use of alcohol in 2002. An estimated 55 percent of Caucasians reported past month use. The next highest rates were for persons reporting more than one race (49.9 percent). The lowest current drinking rate reported was for Asians (37.1 percent). The rate was 39.9 percent for African Americans and 44.7 percent for Native Americans/Alaska Natives.[clxxiii]

Overall, in 55 percent of Native American violent victimizations, the victim said the offender was under the influence of alcohol, drugs, or both.[clxxiv]

Native Americans have a rate of arrest for alcohol violations (DUI, liquor law violations, and public drunkenness) more than double the national rate. Arrests of Native Americans under the age of 18 for alcohol-related violations are also twice the national average.[clxxv]

Cuban American fatally injured passengers are more likely than any other ethnic group to have been using safety belts at the time of the crash.[clxxvi]

Asian-Pacific Islander Americans have the highest rate of safety belt use by drivers killed in fatal crashes (43 percent).[clxxvii]

Asian-Pacific Islander Americans have distinctly lower rates of alcohol-related fatalities (28.2 percent of all crash fatalities), and this is true for all types of road users: drivers, passengers, pedestrians, and cyclists.[clxxviii]

In a recent survey, Hispanic students (36.4 percent) were significantly more likely than Caucasian students (28.5 percent) to have ridden with a driver who had been drinking alcohol. Overall, 30.2 percent of students have ridden with a driver who had been drinking alcohol.[clxxix]

A recent study reflected 12.9 percent of Caucasian high school students drove after drinking alcohol, compared to 11.7 percent for Hispanic and 9.1 percent for African Americans. Overall, 12.1 percent of students have ridden with a driver who had been drinking alcohol .[clxxx]

High school students who drank before the age of 13 years were highest among African Americans at 31.2 percent. Among Hispanics, 30.2 percent drank before age 13 and, among Caucasians, 25.7 percent drank before age 13.[clxxxi]

A study of 2002 advertising found that alcohol advertising overexposed African-American youth compared to non-African-American youth, reached underage African Americans more effectively than young adult African Americans, and exhibited significant concentration of brands and magazines.[clxxxii]

[i] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[ii] Blincoe, Lawrence, et al. “The Economic Impact of Motor Vehicle Crashes 2000.” Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2002. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/economic/EconImpact2000/

[iii] Miller, Ted, Diane Lestina & Rebecca Spicer. “Highway Crash Costs in the United States by Driver Age, Blood Alcohol Level, Victim Age, and Restraint Use,” Accident Analysis and Prevention, 30, no. 2 (1998): 137-150.

[iv] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Fatality Analysis Reporting System, 2004.

[v] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “The Traffic Stop and You: Improving Communications between Citizens and Law Enforcement.” National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, March 2001, DOT HS 809 212. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/enforce/Traffic%20Stop%20&%20You%20HTML/TrafficStop_index.htm.

[vi] Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. “Q&A: Alcohol: General.” Arlington, VA: National Highway Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, June 2003. http://www.hwysafety.org/safety_facts/qanda/alcohol_general.htm.

[vii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. "Alcohol Screening and Brief Intervention in the Medical Setting." DOT HS 809 467. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, July 2002.

[viii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “The Economic Impact of Motor Vehicle Crashes 2000,” DOT HS 809 446. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, May 2002.

[ix] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[x] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Alcohol and Highway Safety 2001: A Review of the State of Knowledge.” DOT HS 809 383. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, November 2001. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/research/AlcoholHighway/

[xi] Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. “Q&A: Alcohol: General.” Arlington, VA: National Highway Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, June 2003. http://www.hwysafety.org/safety_facts/qanda/alcohol_general.htm.

[xii] Rogers JD. Greenfield TK. Beer drinking accounts for most of the hazardous alcohol consumption reported in the United States. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 60(6):732-9, 1999

[xiii] Narcotic Educational Foundation of America. “Alcohol: A Potent Drug.” Santa Clarita, CA: Narcotic Educational Foundation of America, 2002.
http://www.cnoa.org/N-02.pdf.

[xiv] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Overview”. DOT 809 767. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809767.pdf

[xv] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[xvi] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[xvii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[xviii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Older Population.” DOT HS 809 766. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809766.pdf

[xix] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Findings from the 2002 National Household Survey on Drug Use,” Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Applied Studies, 2004. http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NHSDA/2k2NSDUH/Results/2k2results.htm#chap3

[xx] Narcotic Educational Foundation of America. “Alcohol: A Potent Drug.” Santa Clarita, CA: Narcotic Educational Foundation of America, 2002.
http://www.cnoa.org/N-02.pdf.

[xxi] Michigan State University. “Basic Alcohol Information.” East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, 2003. http://www.healthed.msu.edu/snc/basic.htm

[xxii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Alcohol and Highway Safety 2001: A Review of the State of Knowledge.” DOT HS 809 383. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, November 2001. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/research/AlcoholHighway/

[xxiii] Runge, Jeffrey W., M.D. Administrator, DOT, MADD Impaired Driving Summit, January 2002

[xxiv] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “State Estimates of Substance Use from the 2002 NSDUH,” Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Applied Studies, 2004. http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NHSDA/2k2NSDUH/Results/2k2results.htm#chap3

[xxv] Grant, Bridgett, et al. "The 12-Month Prevalence and Trends in DSM-IV Alcohol Abuse and Dependence: United States, 1991–1992 and 2001–2002." Drug and Alcohol Dependence 74 (3): (2003) 223-234.

[xxvi] Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation. “Drinking in America: Myths, Realities, and Prevention Policy.” Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), 2002. http://www.udetc.org/documents/Drinking_in_America.pdf

[xxvii] Fell J.C. (1995), "What's New in Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety in the U.S.?" National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Proceedings of 13th Conference, International Council on Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety, ICADTS, NHMRC Road Accident Research Unit, University of Adelaide, Australia, C.N. Kloeden and A. J. McLean (Editors), T95, pp 329-335.

[xxviii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Fatality Analysis Reporting System, 2004.

[xxix] TNS Media Intelligence/CMR; Spending on radio from Miller-Kaplan Associates, 2004.

[xxx] Agricultural Marketing Service. Report to Congress on the National Dairy Promotion and Research Program and the National Fluid Milk Processor Promotion Program. “Fluid Milk Market and Promotion Assessment.” Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, July 1, 2002. http://www.ams.usda.gov/dairy/prb/rtc_2002/chapter_4.pdf

[xxxi] Casswell, Sally, and Jia Fand Zhang. “Impact of Liking for Advertising and Brand Allegiance on Drinking and Alcohol-Related Aggression: A Longitudinal Study”. Addiction 93: (1998) 1209–1217

[xxxii] Grube, Joel, and Lawrence Wallack. “Television Beer Advertising and Drinking Knowledge, Beliefs, and Intentions Among School Children.” American Journal of Public Health 84: (1994) 254–259.

[xxxiii] Wyllie, Allan, Jia Fand Zhang, and Sally Casswell. “Responses to Televised Alcohol Advertisements Associated with Drinking Behavior of 10–17-Year-Olds.” Addiction 93: (1998) 361–371.

[xxxiv] Strasburger, Victor. and Edward Donnerstein. “Children, Adolescents, and the Media: Issues and Solutions.” Pediatrics, 103 no. 1 (1999):129-139.

[xxxv] Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth. "Fewer Drops in the Bucket: Alcohol Industry 'Responsibility' Advertising Declined on Television in 2002." 2004.

[xxxvi] Roberts, Donald, et al. “Kids & Media @ the New Millennium.” Menlo Park, CA: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 1999.

[xxxvii] Toomey, Traci and Alex Wagenaar. “Environmental Policies to Reduce College Drinking: Option and Research Findings”. Prepared for Advisory Council Subcommittee on College Drinking, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2000) http://www.collegedrinkingprevention.gov/Reports/Journal/toomey.aspx

[xxxviii] Christensen, P.G., L. Henriksen, and D.F. Roberts. “Substance Use in Popular Prime-Time Television.” Washington, DC: Office of National Drug Control Policy, 2000.

[xxxix] Roberts, D.F., L. Henriksen, and P.G. Christensen. “Substance Use in Popular Movies and Music.” Washington, DC: Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1999.

[xl] Roberts, D.F., L. Henriksen, and P.G. Christensen. “Substance Use in Popular Movies and Music.” Washington, DC: Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1999.

[xli] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[xlii] Zador, Paul, Sheila Krawchuk, and B. Moore, “Drinking and Driving Trips, Stops by Police, and Arrests: Analysis of the 1995 National Survey of Drinking and Driving Attitudes and Behavior,” Rockville, MD: Estat, Inc, 1997.

[xliii] Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). “Alcohol and Crime: An Analysis of National Data on the Prevalence of Alcohol Involvement in Crime.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 1998 http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/ac.pdf

[xliv] Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). “Alcohol and Crime: An Analysis of National Data on the Prevalence of Alcohol Involvement in Crime.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 1998 http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/ac.pdf

[xlv] Copeland, Kenneth. “The Economic Impact of Motor Vehicles 2000.” May 2002 presentation. http://www3.utsouthwestern.edu/parkland/ipc/copeland.pdf

[xlvi] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[xlvii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Alcohol and Highway Safety 2001: A Review of the State of Knowledge.” DOT HS 809 383. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, November 2001. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/research/AlcoholHighway/

[xlviii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Alcohol and Highway Safety 2001: A Review of the State of Knowledge.” DOT HS 809 383. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, November 2001. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/research/AlcoholHighway/

[xlix] Gallup Organization. “Volume I: Summary Report. National Survey of Drinking and Driving Attitudes and Behavior: 2001. DOT HS 809 549. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, June 2003. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/marvin-drink-drive01/volISum.pdf

[l] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[li] Hingson, Ralph and D. Kenkel. “Social and Health Consequences of Underage Drinking.” In press. As quoted in Institute of Medicine National Research Council of the National Academies. Bonnie, Richard J. and Mary Ellen O’Connell, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003.

[lii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[liii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Occupant Protection”. DOT 809 765. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809765.pdf.

[liv] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Occupant Protection”. DOT 809 765. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809765.pdf.

[lv] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Occupant Protection”. DOT 809 765. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809765.pdf.

[lvi] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Young Drivers”. DOT 809 774. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809774.pdf.

[lvii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. "Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Children.” DOT 809 762. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809762.pdf

[lviii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Overview”. DOT 809 767. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809767.pdf

[lix] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. "Safety Belt Usage in 2004 – Overall Reports." DOT 809 783. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004.
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/Traffic-Safety-Facts/Research-Notes/SeatBelt-Use-2004/

[lx] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Young Drivers”. DOT 809 774. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809774.pdf.

[lxi] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Young Drivers”. DOT 809 774. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809774.pdf.

[lxii] Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. “Fatality Facts: Teenagers”. Arlington, VA: National Highway Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, November 2002. http://www.iihs.org/safety_facts/fatality_facts/teens.htm

[lxiii] Williams, Allan. “Teenage Passengers in Motor Vehicle Crashes: A Summary of Current Research.” Arlington, VA: National Highway Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, December 2001. http://www.hwysafety.org/safety_facts/teens/teen_passengers.pdf

[lxiv] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Findings from the 2002 National Household Survey on Drug Use,” Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Applied Studies, 2004. http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NHSDA/2k2NSDUH/Results/2k2results.htm#chap3

[lxv] Data from 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

[lxvi] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. "Results from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings." Office of Applied Studies, NHSDA Series H-22, DHHS Publication NO. SMA 03-3836: Rockville, MD. 2003.

[lxvii] Institute of Medicine National Research Council of the National Academies. Bonnie, Richard J. and Mary Ellen O’Connell, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003.

[lxviii] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Findings from the 2002 National Household Survey on Drug Use,” Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Applied Studies, 2004. http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NHSDA/2k2NSDUH/Results/2k2results.htm#chap3

[lxix] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Findings from the 2002 National Household Survey on Drug Use,” Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Applied Studies, 2004. http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NHSDA/2k2NSDUH/Results/2k2results.htm#chap3

[lxx] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “Trends in College Binge Drinking During a Period of Increased Prevention Efforts.” Journal of American College Health. 50, No. 5, (2002).

[lxxi] “American Academy of Pediatrics Survey of Teen Alcohol Consumption: Summary Findings,” American Academy of Pediatrics, September 30, 1998. http://www.aap.org/advocacy/releases/aapkeyf2.htm

[lxxii] “Prevention Report”. Washington, DC: Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 13 (2), Summer 1998.

[lxxiii] Institute of Medicine National Research Council of the National Academies. Bonnie, Richard J. and Mary Ellen O’Connell, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003.

[lxxiv] Johnston, L.D., et al. “Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug use, 1975-2003: Volume I, Secondary School Students." NIH Publication No. 04-5507. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2003.

[lxxv] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Alcohol Use: The NHSDA Report.” Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, April 13, 2003.

[lxxvi] Flewelling, R.L, M.J. Paschall, and C. Ringwalt. “The Epidemiology of Underage Drinking in the United States: An Overivew.” In press. As quoted in Institute of Medicine National Research Council of the National Academies. Bonnie, Richard J. and Mary Ellen O’Connell, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003.

[lxxvii] Biglan, A., et al. Multiproblem Youth: Prevention, Intervention, and Treatment. New York: Guilford, 2003.

[lxxviii] Johnston, L.D., et al. “Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug use, 1975-2003: Volume I, Secondary School Students." NIH Publication No. 04-5507. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2003.

[lxxix] Johnston, L.D., et al. “Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug use, 1975-2003: Volume I, Secondary School Students." NIH Publication No. 04-5507. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2003.

[lxxx] Johnston, L.D., et al. “Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug use, 1975-2003: Volume I, Secondary School Students." NIH Publication No. 04-5507. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2003.

[lxxxi] Peter D. Hart Research Associates, Inc./American Viewpoint. "Results of a National Survey of Parents." June 24, 2003. http://camy.org/research/files/hartmemo0703.pdf

[lxxxii] "2000-2001 National PRIDE National Summary: Alcohol, Tobacco, Illicit Drugs, Violence and Related Behaviors – Grades 6 through 12." April 5, 2002. http://www.ebasedprevention.net/uploadedFiles/Resources/Newsletter/prideb.pdf

[lxxxiii] Hingson, Ralph and D. Kenkel. “Social and Health Consequences of Underage Drinking.” In press. As quoted in Institute of Medicine National Research Council of the National Academies. Bonnie, Richard J. and Mary Ellen O’Connell, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003. http://books.nap.edu/books/0309089352/html/351.html#pagetop

[lxxxiv] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “Trends in College Binge Drinking During a Period of Increased Prevention Efforts.” Journal of American College Health. 50, No. 5, (2002).

[lxxxv] Levy, David T., et al. “Costs of Underage Drinking.” Pacific Institute for Research & Evaluation. The Underage Drinking Enforcement Training Center. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). Updated Edition, June 1999.

[lxxxvi] Grant, Bridgett and Deborah Dawson. “Age at Onset of Alcohol Use and Its Association with DSM-IV Alcohol Abuse and Dependence.” Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. Journal of Substance Abuse 9 (1997): 103-110.

[lxxxvii] Hingson, Ralph, Timothy Heeren, and Rhonda Zakocs. “Age of Drinking Onset and Involvement in Physical Fights after Drinking.” Pediatrics. 2001 Oct; 108(4):872-7.

[lxxxviii] Grant, Bridget, “The Impact of a Family History of Alcoholism on the Relationship Between Age at Onset of Alcohol Use and DSM-IV Alcohol Dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey.” Alcohol Health and Research World, no. 22, 1998.

[lxxxix] National Institute on Drug Abuse. “Volume 1: Secondary School Students”, National Survey Results on Drug Use from The Monitoring the Future Study, 1975-1997. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services, 1998.

[xc] Hingson, Ralph, et al. “Age of Drinking Onset, Driving After Drinking, and Involvement in Alcohol-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes.” DOT HS 809 188. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, January 2001.

[xci] Hingson, Ralph, et al. “Age of Drinking Onset, Driving After Drinking, and Involvement in Alcohol-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes.” DOT HS 809 188. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, January 2001.

[xcii] Hingson, Ralph, et al. “Age of First Intoxication, Heavy Drinking, Driving after Drinking and Risk of Unintentional Injury among US College Students.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64 no 1 (2003), 23+.

[xciii] National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, “Youth Drinking: Risk Factors and Consequences”, Alcohol Alert No. 37, 1997.

[xciv] Cooper, M.L. “Alcohol Use and Risky Sexual Behavior Among College Students: Evaluating the Experience.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol Supp. 14 (March 2002): 101-117.

[xcv] Levy, David T., et al. “Underage Drinking: Immediate Consequences and Their Costs.” Pacific Institute for Research & Evaluation, working paper, unpublished (July 1999).

[xcvi] Hingson, Ralph and D. Kenkel. “Social and Health Consequences of Underage Drinking.” In press. As quoted in Institute of Medicine National Research Council of the National Academies. Bonnie, Richard J. and Mary Ellen O’Connell, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003.

[xcvii] Hingson, Ralph and D. Kenkel. “Social and Health Consequences of Underage Drinking.” In press. As quoted in Institute of Medicine National Research Council of the National Academies. Bonnie, Richard J. and Mary Ellen O’Connell, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003.

[xcviii] Levy, David T., et al. “Underage Drinking: Immediate Consequences and Their Costs.” Pacific Institute for Research & Evaluation, working paper, unpublished (July 1999).

[xcix] Institute of Medicine National Research Council of the National Academies. Bonnie, Richard J. and Mary Ellen O’Connell, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003.

[c] Hingson, Ralph and D. Kenkel. “Social and Health Consequences of Underage Drinking.” In press. As quoted in Institute of Medicine National Research Council of the National Academies. Bonnie, Richard J. and Mary Ellen O’Connell, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003.

[ci] Elder, R., et al. "Alcohol-Relared Emergency Department Visits among People Ages 13 to 25 Years." Journal of Studies on Alcohol 65, no. 3 (2004): 297-300.

[cii] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Substance Abuse among Youths Who Had Run Away from Home,” Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Applied Studies, 2004. http://oas.samhsa.gov/2k4/runAways/runAways.htm

[ciii] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “Trends in College Binge Drinking During a Period of Increased Prevention Efforts.” Journal of American College Health. 50, No. 5, (2002).

[civ] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “Trends in College Binge Drinking During a Period of Increased Prevention Efforts.” Journal of American College Health. 50, No. 5, (2002).

[cv] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “Trends in College Binge Drinking During a Period of Increased Prevention Efforts.” Journal of American College Health. 50, No. 5, (2002).

[cvi] Hingson, Ralph, et al., “Magnitude of Alcohol-Related Mortality and Morbidity among U.S. College Students Ages 18-24.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 63, no. 2 (2002): 136-144.

[cvii] Task Force of the National Advisory Council of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. “A Call to Action: Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges.” Washington, DC: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, April 2002. http://www.collegedrinkingprevention.gov/Reports/TaskForce/TaskForce_TOC.aspx

[cviii] Williams, Jenny, Lisa Powell, and Henry Wechsler. “Does Alcohol Consumption Reduce Human Capital Accumulation? Evidence from the College Alcohol Study.” Research Paper Series, No. 18. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, February 2002. http://www.impacteen.org/generalarea_PDFs/capitalaccumulationfeb2002_final.pdf

[cix] Williams, Jenny, Lisa Powell, and Henry Wechsler. “Does Alcohol Consumption Reduce Human Capital Accumulation? Evidence from the College Alcohol Study.” Research Paper Series, No. 18. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, February 2002. http://www.impacteen.org/generalarea_PDFs/capitalaccumulationfeb2002_final.pdf

[cx] Williams, Jenny, Lisa Powell, and Henry Wechsler. “Does Alcohol Consumption Reduce Human Capital Accumulation? Evidence from the College Alcohol Study.” Research Paper Series, No. 18. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, February 2002. http://www.impacteen.org/generalarea_PDFs/capitalaccumulationfeb2002_final.pdf

[cxi] Knight, John, et al. “Alcohol Abuse and Dependence among U.S. College Students.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 63 no. 3 (May 2002), 263-270. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/cas/Documents/dependence_0602/

[cxii] Powell, Lisa, Jenny Williams, and Henry Wechsler. “Study Habits and Alcohol Use among College Students.” Education Economics (February 2002) in review.

[cxiii] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “College Binge Drinking in the 1990s: A Continuing Problem—Results of the Harvard School of Public Health 1999 College Alcohol Study.” Journal of American College Health 48.10 (2000): 199-210. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/cas/Documents/cont_problem/

[cxiv] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “Underage College Students’ Drinking Behavior, Access to Alcohol, and the Influence of Deterrence Policies: Findings from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study.” Journal of American College Health 50.5 (2002): 223-36. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/cas/Documents/underminimum/

[cxv] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Findings from the 2002 National Household Survey on Drug Use,” Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Applied Studies, 2004. http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NHSDA/2k2NSDUH/Results/2k2results.htm#chap3

[cxvi] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “Trends in College Binge Drinking During a Period of Increased Prevention Efforts: Finding from Four Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study Surveys 1993-2001.” Journal of American College Health 50 (2002): 203-22. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/cas/Documents/trends/

[cxvii] National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. “A Call to Action: Changing the Culture of Drinking at US Colleges.” NIH Publication No. 02-5010. Bethesda, MD: Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2002.

[cxviii] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “Trends in College Binge Drinking During a Period of Increased Prevention Efforts: Findings from four Harvard School of Public Health Study Surveys, 1993-2001.” Journal of American College Health, 50, vol. 5 (2002), 203-217.

[cxix] Wechsler, Henry, et al. “Underage College Student’s Drinking Behavior, Access to Alcohol, and the Influence of Deterrence Policies: Findings from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study. Journal of American College Health, 50, vol. 2 (2002), 223-236.

[cxx] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2002: Alcohol.” DOT 809 606. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2003. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2002/2002alcfacts.pdf.

[cxxi] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[cxxii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[cxxiii] Quinlan, Kyran, et al. “Characteristics of Child Passenger Deaths and Injuries Involving Drinking Drivers.” Journal of the American Medical Association 283 no. 17, (2000): 2249-52.

[cxxiv] White, Aaron M. “Substance Use and Adolescent Brain Development: An Overview of Recent Findings with a Focus on Alcohol.” Durham, NC: Duke University Medical Center, 2001. http://www.duke.edu/~amwhite/adol_alc_sum.pdf

[cxxv] Kuhn, Cynthia, Scott Swartzwelder, and Wilkie Wilson. Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Use and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 1998.

[cxxvi] White, Aaron M. “Substance Use and Adolescent Brain Development: An Overview of Recent Findings with a Focus on Alcohol.” Durham, NC: Duke University Medical Center, 2001. http://www.duke.edu/~amwhite/adol_alc_sum.pdf

[cxxvii] Giedd, Jay N. et al. “ Brain Development During Childhood and Adolescence: A Longitudinal MRI Study.” Nature Neuroscience 2, no. 10, October 1999.

[cxxviii] Hingson, Ralph, Timothy Heeren, and Rhonda Zakocs. “Age of Drinking Onset and Involvement in Physical Fights after Drinking.” Pediatrics. 108 vol. 4 (Oct 2001): 872-7.

[cxxix] Narcotic Educational Foundation of America. “Alcohol: A Potent Drug.” Santa Clarita, CA: Narcotic Educational Foundation of America, 2002. http://www.cnoa.org/N-02.pdf.

[cxxx] Narcotic Educational Foundation of America. “Alcohol: A Potent Drug.” Santa Clarita, CA: Narcotic Educational Foundation of America, 2002. http://www.cnoa.org/N-02.pdf.

[cxxxi] Dunlap, Michaele P., “Biological Impacts of Alcohol Use: An Overview”; Oregon Counseling, Portland, OR: Mentor Research Institute, August 2001. http://www.oregoncounseling.org/ArticlesPapers/Documents/ETOHBIOFx.htm

[cxxxii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[cxxxiii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[cxxxiv] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: State Alcohol Estimates.” DOT 809 772. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809772.pdf

[cxxxv] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[cxxxvi] Zador, Paul, Sheila Krawchuk, and Robert Voas. “Relative Risk of Fatal Crash Involvement by BAC, Age, and Gender.” HS 809 050. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/pub/risk-relation.pdf

[cxxxvii] Zador, Paul, Sheila Krawchuk, and Robert Voas. “Relative Risk of Fatal Crash Involvement by BAC, Age, and Gender.” HS 809 050. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/pub/risk-relation.pdf

[cxxxviii] Gallup Organization. “Volume I: Summary Report.” National Survey of Drinking and Driving Attitudes and Behavior: 2001. DOT HS 809 549. June 2003. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/marvin-drink-drive01/volISum.pdf

[cxxxix] Shults, Ruth, et al. “Reviews of Evidence Regarding Interventions to Reduce Alcohol-Impaired Driving.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 21(4S) (2001): 66-88. http://www.thecommunityguide.org/mvoi/mvoi-AJPM-evrev-alchl-imprd-drvng.pdf

[cxl] Zador, Paul, Sheila Krawchuk, and Robert Voas. “Relative Risk of Fatal Crash Involvement by BAC, Age, and Gender.” HS 809 050. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/pub/risk-relation.pdf

[cxli] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts: .08 Illegal Per Se.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, May 2003. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/New-fact-sheet03/Point08BAC.pdf

[cxlii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts: .08 Illegal Per Se.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, May 2003. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/New-fact-sheet03/Point08BAC.pdf

[cxliii] Taylor, Dexter; Miller, Ted; and Cox, Kenya. “Impaired Driving in the United States Cost Fact Sheets.” Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2002. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/impaired_driving_pg2/US.htm

[cxliv] Taylor, Dexter; Miller, Ted; and Cox, Kenya. “Impaired Driving in the United States Cost Fact Sheets.” Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2002. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/impaired_driving_pg2/US.htm

[cxlv] Taylor, Dexter; Miller, Ted; and Cox, Kenya. “Impaired Driving in the United States Cost Fact Sheets.” Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2002. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/impaired_driving_pg2/US.htm

[cxlvi] Taylor, Dexter; Miller, Ted; and Cox, Kenya. “Impaired Driving in the United States Cost Fact Sheets.” National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Contract DTNH22-98-D-35079, Task Order 7. 2002. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/impaired_driving_pg2/US.htm

[cxlvii] Mercer, G.W., P.K. Cooper, L. A. Kristiansen. “A Cost/Benefit Analysis of a 5-Month Intensive Alcohol-Impaired Driving Road Check Campaign.” Proc. 40th Annual AAAM (1996): 283-292.

[cxlviii] Miller, Ted, M.S. Galbraith and B.A. Lawrence , “Costs and Benefits of a Community Sobriety Checkpoint Program.” J Stud Alcohol 59 (1998): 462–468. Costs included personnel, equipment, travel delay, trial, punishment, and mobility loss associated with sanctioning (e.g., loss of driver's license) and benefits were estimated by accounting for medical care, property damage, and public costs.

[cxlix] Miller, Ted. "The Effectiveness Review Trials of Hercules and Some Economic Estimates for the Stables." American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21(4S) (2001): 9-12.

[cl] Stuster, Jack and Paul Blowers. “Experimental Evaluation of Sobriety Checkpoint Programs.” DOTHS 808 287. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Safety Traffic Administration, 1995.

[cli] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Crash Outcome Data Evaluation System (CODES), 1996

[clii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Buckle Up America Legislative Fact Sheet.” Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. May 2003.

[cliii] Miller, Ted. "The Effectiveness Review Trials of Hercules and Some Economic Estimates for the Stables." American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21(4S) (2001): 9-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hstat3.section.5913

[cliv] Miller, Ted. "The Effectiveness Review Trials of Hercules and Some Economic Estimates for the Stables." American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21(4S) (2001): 9-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hstat3.section.5913

[clv] Miller, Ted. "The Effectiveness Review Trials of Hercules and Some Economic Estimates for the Stables." American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21(4S) (2001): 9-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hstat3.section.5913

[clvi] Miller, Ted. "The Effectiveness Review Trials of Hercules and Some Economic Estimates for the Stables." American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21(4S) (2001): 9-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hstat3.section.5913

[clvii] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. "The Economic Burden of Traffic Crashes on Employers." Washington, DC: National Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2003. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/airbags/EconomicBurden/

[clviii] Fell, Jim. “Repeat DWI Offenders in the United States.” Washington, DC: National Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Traffic Tech No. 85, February 1995. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/outreach/traftech/1995/TT085.htm

[clix] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Repeat DWI Offenders Are an Elusive Target.” Washington, DC: National Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Traffic Tech No. 217, March 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/outreach/traftech/pub/tt217.html

[clx] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[clxi] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. “Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Alcohol.” DOT 809 761. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2004. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2003/809761.pdf .

[clxii] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2000.

[clxiii] US Census Bureau. “The Hispanic Population: Census 2000 Brief.” May 2001. http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-3.pdf

[clxiv] Baker, Susan. “Motor Vehicle Occupant Deaths Among Hispanic and Black Children and Teenagers.” Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Volume 152 (December 1998): 1209-1212.

[clxv] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxvi] Caetano, Raul, Lee Ann Kaskutas. “Changes in Drinking Patterns among Whites, Blacks and Hispanics, 1984-1992.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 56 no. 5 (1995 Sep): 558-65.

[clxvii] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxviii] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxix] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxx] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxxi] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxxii] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxxiii] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “Findings from the 2002 National Household Survey on Drug Use,” Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Applied Studies, 2004. http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NHSDA/2k2NSDUH/Results/2k2results.htm#chap3

[clxxiv] Greenfield, Lawrence A and Steven K. Smith. “American Indians and Crime.” NCJ 173386. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. February 1999. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/aic.pdf

[clxxv] Greenfield, Lawrence A and Steven K. Smith. “American Indians and Crime.” NCJ 173386. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. February 1999. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/aic.pdf

[clxxvi] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxxvii] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxxviii] Voas, Robert, A. Scott Tippetts, and Deborah Fisher. “Ethnicity and Alcohol-Related Fatalities: 1990-1994.” DOT HS 809 068. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2000. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/alcohol/ethnicity/ethnicity.html

[clxxix] “Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance – United States, 2003” Center for Disease Control and Prevention 2003. http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/YRBSS/index.asp

[clxxx] “Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance – United States, 2003” Center for Disease Control and Prevention 2003. http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/YRBSS/index.asp

[clxxxi] “Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance – United States, 2003” Center for Disease Control and Prevention 2003. http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/YRBSS/index.asp

[clxxxii] “Exposure Of African-American Youth To Alcohol Advertising”, Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth, June 19, 2003. http://camy.org/research/files/afam0603.pdf